Contribution of empires to Indian culture
From the period of India’s first empire, Mauryan Empire, there was incredible/amazing progress in arts, architecture and governance. And new kind of governance was introduced. Gupta empire and Mauryan empire concentrated on expanding the divisions. Have done immeasurable works to Indian culture and Hinduism. The scientific vision of Gupta empire sown the seed for today’s scientific development. During the period of Kushan Buddhism, art and architecture spread to foreign countries. From Chalukkiya country, the worship of God Ganesha was introduced in Tamil Nadu by Ganapathyam, a new religion. Pallavas made single stone chariots, cave temples and preserved Indian culture. After Pallavas, Chozhas were pioneer in governance, art, culture, literature and spread religious tolerance.
Later Pandya period had seen amazing improvement in economy. Through trade groups and foreign trades they increased the internal income. Theie system of measurement is the pioneer to present day system of measurement. During the period of Hoisala and Rashtrakuda Kannada language was revived. Mughal empire’s administrative system was pioneer to India’s current administrative system like Birka, Panchayat etc.
Culture during Mauryan period
Mauryan empire laid foundation stone for ancient India’s administration, arts, growth in society, religion and economy and introduction of fine arts. It is well mentioned the contribution of Chandra Gupta, Bindusara and Ashoka to Indian culture.
Testimonials (Evidences)
The evidences of Mauryan empires are there in Kautilya’s (Chanakya) Arthashastra, Vishaka Datta’s Mudra Ratchasam, Devi Chabdraguptam, Greek messenger Megastanese’s Indika, Maha vamsam and Deepa Vamsam like Buddhist books, Empire Ashika’s inscriptions.
Administration of Mauryan
Arthashastra, the veda of Mauryan empire tells about the administration of Mauryan empire. It gives definition to a king’s administration should be. It is king’s duty to establish righteousness and justice in the country. It is called Dharma of kingdom. To assist King in administration, there were 12 member groups. Mauryan empire was divided into 4 states. Tosali, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri, and Taxila were the capital cities of those states. Mahamathiras (governors) ruled these states. To help the king, a group of ministers was there. It consisted of Purohidar (Guru of kingdom), commanding officer, Treasury officer, Tax collector, personal assistant to king, அதில் புரோகிதர்
(அரசகுரு), சேனாதிபதி (படைத்தலைவர்),
சன்னிதத்தா (கருவூல அதிகாரி), சம்ஹர்தர்
(வரி வசூல் செய்பவர்), பிரதிஹாரா (மன்னனின்
தனி உதவியாளர்), பிரசஸ்தா (காவல்துறைத்
தலைவர்), நியாயாதீஷ் (தலைமை நீதிபதி),
அந்தபாலா (எல்லைப் புறப்பாதுகாவல் அதிகாரி),
பௌர் (தலைநகர ஆளுநர்), அத்வர்வம்சிகா
(பெண் பாதுகாவல் அதிகாரி), துர்க்கப ாலா
(கோட்டைப் பாதுகாவல் அதிகாரி) ஆகியோர்
முக்கிய இடம் வகித்தனர்.
The district income tax officers were called as Rajukars. Mauryan states were divided into districts and was administered by sthanikars. To assist the district collectors, Yuktars were there.
The person who looked up the city administration was called nagarika. Megasthanese and kartilyar mentioned about their works. Maurya’s capital city Patliputra was governed by 6 groups consisting 5 members in each group.
Defence administration
Senathipathi (Commanding officer) looked after the defence administration. The forces like elephant force, cavalry, chariot force and infantry were got importance. Greek scholar Pilini wrote that there were 6 lakhs soldiers in infantry, 30,000 soldiers in cavalry, 9000 soldiers in elephant forces and 8000 soldiers in chariot forces were there in Mauryan defence force. There were sea force and transport force were also there. Under the commander’s of the force, ஆயுதகரஅத்யக்ஷாAyuthakaraadyaksha lookedafter the forces.
Justice and police administration
According to mentions of Kautilyar in his book, the rights of court established in Maurya’s period was called as Dharmasthaniyam, civil courts were called as kandaka sothanangal and Judge was referred as Dharmathikari.
Revenue administration
Land tax was the primary tax. One sixth of the produce from land was imposed as tax. Irrigation tax, boat tax, forest tax, Mine tax were imposed. To regulate the foreign trade, excise duties were imposed. Land tax was called as Baga and tax on fruits was called as bali.
Spying
Maurya kings like Chandra Gupta and Bindusarar were appointed spies and monitored the country. Asoka spread spying method. Kautilya called the spies of Mauryan period as Kuthapurushargal.
Society during the Mauryan period
The caste system became strong during Mauryan period. After the invasion of Alexander in India, Greeks married Indians. Due to that new Ind-Greek society formed and the cultural elements of Greeks interconnected to Indian culture. According to Megathanese, Indian society had Philosophers, gardeners, poultry farmers, handcraft artists, Defence officers, monitors and moderators like 7 divisions of people lived during Mauryan period. In their period the famous Takshashila University produced many educationists and governors. The patriarchal society became strong but upper caste ladies had the right to chose her marriage partner. People wore cotton and woolen clothes decorated with gold and silver ornaments.
Economy of Mauryan period
Agriculture was the main occupation. Depending upon the yields yearly and seasonal taxes were collected. Sidhiyaksha managed government agricultural farms. Nearchus, a Greek praised the cottage industry and pottery industry during Mauryan period. Arrian mentioned that women wore and made many ear rings. Weapons and jewels were made from Iron, copper and silver mined from Chota Nagpur Plateau. Copper smiths, carpenters and fishing community were economically and socially prominent. Mining industry was done by government itself.
Traders formed a group among themselves called as Shreni. Takshashila, Ujjain, Kausambi, Patliputra were important trade centers in their period. Port of Tamralipti was notable. Cotton, woolen clothes, pearls were exported. Gold and silver were imported. Traders had trade relations with Greece, Siriya and Egypt like countries. During the business/trade exchange gold coin named as Nishka, silver coin engraved with moon, peacock and hill named as pana and copper coin named as karsapana were in use.
Religions in Mauryan period
People followed Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. Idol worshiping
of Hinduism increased. People worshiped Krishna, Balarama, Shiva
and Indra. Ganges and Yamuna rivers were considered as mothers
and worshiped by people. Chandra Gupta Maurya was converted to
Jainism by Bhadra Bahu and he renounced his royal post spread
Jainism all over the country. He sacrificed his life by way of keeping
fast till death at Shravanabelegola near Mysore in Karnataka. After
his death a temple was constructed for him at Chandrabasti.
In the year 261 BCE after the war of Kalinga, Ashoka was
converted to Buddhism by a Buddhist saint named Upagupta. He
appointed officers named as Dharma Maha Mathirargal to spread
Buddhism. In his capital city Pataliputra he organised 3rd
conference of Buddhism under the leadership of Moggaliputtatissa.
He sent Buddhist monks to spread Buddhism in Tibet, Chinaand
Burma. He sent his son Mahendran and daughter Sangamitra to Sri
Lanka to spread Buddhism. He played a key role in spreading
Buddhism all over the world. He went to Lumbini, Rumindi,
Nikliva, Gaya and Kusinagaram like places related to Buddha. His
philosophical theries are called Ashoka Dammam. According to this :-
Everyone should take care of parents, follow non-violence, love
truth, worship teachers and treat relatives with respect.
Avoid religious ceremonies and animal sacrifice.
Go on pilgrimage and spread religion
Government officers should deal prisoners and servants with
humanity.
Kings, scholars and Brahmins should be treated with respect or
worshiped/praised.
Religious tolerance.
Avoiding war and follow morality to get success in life.
Literature
During the period of Mauryan ruling, Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit
languages were in high position in North India. In the deep south
Tamil was in use and in the East Prakrit language was official
language. For speaking Pali language and for literature Sanskrit was
in used by people easily.
Fine arts
Stupas, strains and chaityas (prayer hall) got importance in Mauryan
school of architecture. The memorial building of deceased Buddhist
scholars, kings built with circular dome buildings are called stupas.
Their prayer halls are called as Chaityas. The living places of
Buddhist religious heads are called as Vihars(strains). Mauryans
were interested in building Stupas.
The famous Stupa is in Sanchi, built by Ashoka. It is built by dark
whitish gray colour stones. Its width is 121 ½ feet and height is 77
½. There are 4 entrances with great pillars which are examples ofg
great sculpture art. Stone Stupas and cave temples are shining even
today.
Ashoka in his 7th pillar inscriptions mentioned that as the
morality(Dharma) should live longer, the rules of Dharma should be
inscribed wherever there is stone pillar and rocks. So many pillars
and rocks were inscribed with moral messages. In
Anurathapuram,Sri Lanka Sanchi like Stupa was constructed by
Ashoka. Stone Pillars of Rampuva, Lauria Nandangarh and Saranath
are excellent. Ox, Lions are inscribed in these pillars.
Art and architecture of Maurya
They are famous for their architect and arts. Saranath stone pillar
has significance in history. The base of the pillar resembles upside
down lotus or bell. Upon it 4 wheels with a drum in sides were
inscribed. Those wheels are called as Dharma chakra and it has 24
lines in it, and in all the four sides elephant, ox, lion and horse were
inscribed. Upon the drum 4 lions sticking with their back of each
other is inscribed. This art work reveals the Maurya period
excellency in arts and it is India’s national symbol and is inscribed
in Indian coins and printed in Indian rupee notes. Dharma Chakra
decorates our national flag.
Barabar caves gifted by Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha to
Ajivikas is our one of the heritage icon of our country.
Contribution of Mauryas to Indian culture
The administrative system of Mauryas like Central Government,
Secretariat, State Governments, Finance, Justice Administration,
Public Works Department, Municipal System are their contribution
to us.
The universities from the period of Mauryas such as Takshashila,
Ujjain and Kasi are excellent centre for our Indian culture even
today.
Maurya kings spread theories of Hinduism and love, non-violence
like Buddhist doctrines to foreign countries and add glory to India.
Mauryas not only gave importance to education, art and literature
but also gave importance to growth of languages such as Sanskrit,
Prakrit and Pali.
Kautilyar’s Arthshastra and Vyakaran (grammer book) are the
contribution of Mauryas.
Ashoka’s concept of non-violence, charity, truth and compassion are
contribution to Indian culture.
Culture of Kushanars
Kushans were belonged to Yuezhi dynasty. During their period Indian architecture was excelled. Their great king was Kanishka. In his period Ganghara art and Buddhism were grown.
Evidences
Their coins were evidence to know their history.
Buddhist book Mahavibhasham reveals the religious status of Kushanas.
Gandhara art reveals their art and culture.
Chinese traveler Yuanzhuang's travelogues are helpful to know about the timeline of them.
Important kings
First Kadphises (founder of Kushan empire in India)
Kanishka
Vasudeva(last King)
Governance of Kushanas
King was the ruler of the country and they awarded themselves titles like Maheshwaran and Devaputhran. After the king, his eldest son becomes king according to the right of heirs. The broad spread empire was divided into Satraps, Akara, Janpatha, and desa. Ayodhya, Kasi, Kausambi, Mathura cities were in great position. Mahasenapathy had great position in the administration.
Society
Caste system prevailed during their period but many workers and business communities were also there. Women were in superior position in the society. Men wore anklets, thread in hands and ear rings. They played wrestling and other sports which strengthen the body.
Economic status
Agriculture was the main occupation. Other occupation related to agriculture were also prevailed. Domestic trade and foreign trade were done without interruption during their period. Due to the trade with Rome, the gold from Rome were seen in the market. Indian muslin cloth was sold in Rome. Industrial organisations and Business organisations were operating. Pramuk was working as a head of these organisations.
Religions
Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism were highly followed by people.
They followed religious tolerance. Sanskrit was the language of
Mahayana Buddhism during this period. Buddhism was equally
grown with Hinduism.
4th Buddhist council
It was presided over by Vasumitra and Ashwagosha, held at
Kundalvan in Kashmir. The meaning of Buddhist Pitakas was
compiled in this council. It was called Vibhashakas. Hirayana and
Mahayana sects of Buddhism was diverged after this council. Those
who followed Hinayana wrote the Mahavibhasham, the
philosophical book of Buddhism in copper sheets. They erected
Buddhist Stupas. Mahayana was spread in central Asia, China and
Japan like countries while Hinayana was spread in Sri Lanka,
Burma Thailand and South East Asian countries.
Language and Literature
Sanskrit was regarded highly in Kushan period. Many Sanskrit
books were written. Buddhacharitha and Saundarananda were
Sanskrit books. Madhyamaka sutra written by Nagarjuna and
Mahavibasacharita written byVasumitra were written in this period.
Art and architecture
Kanishka built Stupas in Peshawar. He built a city named
Kanishkapuram (Purushapuram). During his period Gandhara arts
and Mathura sculpture art was very famous.
Gandhara arts
Art that was emerged from and developed in Gandhara is called
Gandhara arts. It is combination of Indian sculpture and Greek arts.
Specialties of Gandhara arts to show the fine descriptions like,
muscles, mustaches, hair styles in the human statues.
To build a statue with visibility of clothes and its fleets.
To convey the message through the minute sculptural techniques.
The main concept/purpose of this Gandhara art is to spread the
theories of Mahayana Buddhism through this art.
Standing Budha statue (Mathura art)
To show light of wisdom behind the head of Budha is in Gandhara
art.
Mathura arts are native of Mathura in present day Uttar Pradesh.
Initially it was growing with Indian style of artistry. Buddha’s face
was carved with spiritual brightness. In Gandhara arts it was not
there. Shiva, Vishnu, Lakshmi and Parvathi statues were carved with
artistry. Yakshini’s and Apsaras statues are famous in Mathura style
of arts.
Kushan’s contribution to Indian culture
Buddhism spread in their period to China, Japan and South East
nations.
In India Mathura arts and Gandhara originated.
Books were written in Sanskrit Instead of Pali language.
During his period country was developed in all the sectors so he was
called as Kanishka was called as Second Ashoka.
Hinduism, Buddhism and other religions were flourished.
Standing Statue of Buddha was designed in their times.
For the first time, wisdom light in circle shape was carved in back
side of a statue’s head in Kushan’s period. Later in Hindu gods’
idols were also carved in this style.
Culture in Gupta’s period
Gupta empire was established in 3rd century CE by Sri Gupta.
Chandragupta I, Samudragupta I, Chandragupta, II Kumara Gupta I
were some of the best kings of Gupta empire. They stamped their
trade mark in many cultural elements like governance, society,
economy, religion, fine arts, literature, science and technology.
Evidences
Literatures of Kalidasa and Vishakadutta, inscriptions of Allahabad
stone pillar and Mehroli iron pillar, Chinese traveler Fa-hiyan’s
travelogue named Bogoki, coins and historical symbols are
evidences of Gupta period.
Governance
Gupta kings named titles to themselves as Parama Pattaraka, maha
Rajathi Raja, Parameshwara and Samrat. Under the King the cabinet
included Chief Minister and Commander-in-chief. These people
advised the king. According to the stone inscriptions of Gupta
period, revenue higher officers named Kumara Mathyayars and
external affairs minister named Mahasandhivigraha were in the
cabinet. Allahabad stone pillar inscriptions tell that ministers of
Justice department were called as Dandanayaka and ministers of
defence department were called as Maha Dandanayaka in Gupta
period. The commander in chief of cavalry was called as Maha
Asvapathi in Gupta period.
Distribution of governance in Gupta period
Gupta empire was divided in to states named Desam or Bukti.
Uparika(governors) governed these states. He was selected by King
and he appointed other officers. Apart from other governance,
Uparikas maintained elephant force, cavalry and infantry in state
level. Eran inscriptions tell about the Lokpala(officer). States were
divided into Vishayam(districts). Vishaya pathi governed these
districts. They were appointed by governors.
Districts were divided into boomi, pita and pathaka. Those were
governed by Ayuktaka, Makathara like officers. There were 8
divisions under Makathara. Sanchi stone inscriptions describes
about Pancha Mandali of Chandra Gupta II. In district level a
advisory group named adyaksha gave advise to vishaya pathis. Even
village panchayats were in good position. Many places in Bengal,
Bihar and Uttar Pradesh were directly governed by Kings. The
governance of Gupta was pioneer to Vakataka, Kalachuri, Chalukya
and Rashtrakudas.
Defence
During Gupta period cavalry, infantry, elephant force and chariot
force were there. The head of infantry was called as Baladikruthya,
the head of cavalry was called as Senathipathi and military
warehouse was called as Ranabandakar.
Palace guards – Mahaprathihara
Palace kitchen monitoring officer- Gathyathabakita
Governing officers -Aathya, Sachiva
Spy intelligence department – Thutaka
Society in Gupta period
Society was in a developed state in their period. Caste discrimination were prevailed but many business communities were also there. Upper caste had all the rights and women were educated highly respected in the society. Teachers were called as acharya and were highly respected. Women wore ear rings, bangles and chains. People liked gold and silver ornaments. Prisoners of wars, losers in gambling and debtors were made slaves.
Economic status of Guptas
Agriculture was main occupation and wheat, rice and barley were cultivated. According to yield and nature of the field land was divided into 5 types. Importance was given to irrigation. Water sent for irrigation through Jalanikama drainage. Sudarsana lake was important for irrigation in Gupta period. One sixth of the yield was collected as tax. It was called Baga. Kara tax was imposed on village people and Hiranya was a tax on golden coins. Varahamihirar and Kalidasa mentioned that the metal and mining industries were in high standard during Gupta period. Iron deposits in Bihar and copper deposits in Rajasthan were detected during their period.
Vanik, Sreshti and sarthavaha were 3 types of businessmen in Gupta period. Sarthavaha did business for profits, Vanik and Sreshti were local business people.
Ujjain, Kasi, Prayag, Gaya, Vaishali and Mathura were important trade centres in their period. Ganga, Krishna, Cauveri and Brahmaputra were used for internal waterways trade. From Kalyan, Baruch, Kambe, Thamiralip ports international trade was done.
Religious status in Gupta period
In Gupta period Hinduism was completely grown. People followed Buddhism and Jainism also.After hearing 10 avatar stories of Vishnu, people started highly respecting Hinduism. Epics and Mythologies were told as stories.
Fahiyan mentioned that the plains of Ganges are Brahmins land. Many kings of Gupta were Hindu but had religious tolerance.
Many new spiritual beliefs were started in Gupta period. Mahavishnu, and his carrier Garuda, Lakshmi were worshiped in the name of Bhagavatam and many new rituals were also started in North India during their period.
Mahavishnu’s Bhavata stories were very famous among people. Rama the hero of Ramayana was worshiped by people as god. Shiva worship was also follwed by people. Vakataka and Kadamba clans followed Shiva worship and Pasupatham religion (shiva worship) was spread in North India. Brahma, Surya, Karthikeya, Ganesha, Durga, Saraswathi gods and goddesses were also worshiped. People worshiped snakes and cows like animals and Ganga and Yamuna like rivers were considered as sacred. Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva were worshiped as Trimurthys and Yama, Indra and Varuna like gods were also worshiped. Kasi, Prayag like places were considered as pilgrims. And going to pilgrimage became popular in those times.
Hinsuism was spread to Mesapatomia regions and Java, Sumatra and Bornia like SouthEast Asian countries. Gupta period was golden period of classic arts and Hindu temples were built during their period.
Buddhism and Jainism
Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh Buddhism was popular. Samusra Gupta I supported Vasubandu named Buddhist scholar. Buddhakosar, a Sri Lankan Buddhist scholar was famous in their period. In Kashmir and Gandharam both Hinduism and Buddhism were followed. The Ajanta Ellora cave paintings and Stupas of North India are evidences that North Indian people followed Buddhism.
Jainism
Jainism was popular in Mathura, Vallabi and Udayagiri.
Literature
During Gupta period many poets wrote different kinds of literature and brought renaissance in Sanskrit.
காளிதாசர் – சாகுந்தலம்,
விக்கிரம�ோர்வசியம்,
மாளவிகாக்னிமித்திரம்,
ரகுவம்சம், குமாரசம்பவம்,
மேகதூதம், ரிதுசம்ஹாரம்.
விசாகதத்தர் – முத்ரா ராக்ஷஸம்,
தேவி சந்திரகுப்தம்.
வாத்ஸ்யாயனர்– காமசூத்திரம்
வராகமிகிரர் – பிருகத் சம்கிதை
சந்திரர் – சந்திராச்சாரிய
வியாக்கரணம்
அமரர் – அமரகோசம்
வாக்பட்டர் – அஷ்டாங்க சங்கிரக,
அஷ்டாங்க கிருதய
சம்ஹிதை (மருத்துவம்)
ஆரியபட்டர் – கணித நூல்கள்,
வானவியல்
சாமண்டகர் – நீதிசாஸ்திரம்
வீரசேனர் - வியாகரணம்
Science and Technology
Science and technological developments were grown step by step in Gupta period. Aryabhatta was the greatest scholar in Gupta period. He was excellent in mathematics and astronomy. He wrote Aryabhatiyam. To add zero in front and behind a number was invented by him. Algebra and square root were also his inventions. He mentioned about the earth revolving around the Sun and revolution of planets.
Another scientific intellectual man lived during Gupta period was Varahamihirar. He wrote Bruhat Samhithai. He mentioned about plants, space and planets and landscapes. Aswashastra book mentioned about the diseases of animals and its treatment methods. Charak was a great physician. He wrote Charaka Samhitha. Dhanwantri was a great Ayurvedic physician lived in Gupta times. He wrote about diseases affecting humans and its treating methods.
Architecture
Architecture during the period had five characteristics.
Temples with flat roof and square in shape.
Temples with Viman (Dome) and flat roofs and square in shape.
Temples with arc towers and square in shape.
Rectangular temples.
Round shaped temples.
These temples were later changed into Nagar style of architecture in North India and Dravida style architecture in South India. A temple was built describing 10 avatars of Mahavishnu at Deogarh. Temple for Shanthi Nath, a Jain saint was also built there. And Mahavishnu temple was also built in Tigawa, near Jabalpur by Gupta kings. And Nagar type temples were built in Bhumara and Nachna kuthara. Temple built by bricks in Bhitargaon near Kanpur is an exampleof Gupta architecture. They built 4 types of halls in temples. Huns destroyed many temples during their invasion. Stupas were built in Rajgraha and Saranath.
Sculpture
The Buddha statue erected by Buddha resembles Greek style. Standing Buddha statue at Saranath is excellent. The style of Saranath is considered as the best in India. It reminds Gandhara arts of Kanishka. The sculpture of Vishnu, Karthikeya, Durga and Nagar were made form baked mud/soil show the excellent workmanship of them. Varaha sculpture at Udaygiri Mahavishnu temple, Dasavathara sculpture at Deohar temple and sculptures at Bharatpur are best sculpture works of Gupta period.
Sculptures were carved telling Saiva, Vainava and religious beliefs and theories. Bithari Stone pillar erected wonderfully by Skanda Gupta. The statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Ram and Krishna were made with beauty and elegance.
Music
Music and dance prospered in their time. Guptas supported music and encouraged musicians. Musicians played Drums (mathalam),Yazh and conch. There are coins with the image Samudra Gupta I playing Veena. We can understand that he supported music.
Dancing art
During festivals dances were performed in temples. In king’s
courtyard also dances performed. They supported dancing arts.
Drama
Kalidasa wrote Sakunthalam,நகர மற்றும் கிராம
நிருவாக சபைகள் Megadutham, Raghuvamsam,
Kumarasambhavam like dramas. Devichandraguptam and
Kaumukhimahotsavam like dramas also performed. So their period
is golden period in classical arts.
Contribution of Guptas to Indian culture
Central administration, state administration, district administration,
urban and rural governing councils are Gupta’s contribution to us.
Kalidasa’s literary works and others literary works are their
contribution.
Aryabhatta’s books on mathematics and astronomy, Astanga
Samgraha by Vagbhatta (Medicine) Varahamigira’s Panchasidhantha
(astronomy), Chandra’s Chandracharya Vyagranam, Amara’s
Nikandu are their contribution for scientific and cultural growth of
India.
Justice department of Gupta period was pioneer to present day Justice department.
Gupta period’s religious tolerance laid foundation for present day
secular India.
Cave temples and concrete temples of Gupta period are examples of
their excellence in architecture.
Paintings and sculptures in Ajantha, Ellora, Bagh like places are the
best features of Indian culture. So their period is golden period in
classical arts.
Chalukya Culture
Chalukya empire was one of the best rulers who ruled southern India. Pulakeshin I Pulakeshin II were the best kings of this dynasty. In Bilhanar’s book Vikramahga Charitham , Chinese traveler Yuan s- Vang's travelogue Siyuki and Aihole stone inscriptions are the evidences to know about Chalukya dynasty.
Governance
King was the ruler and cabinet was formed to help him. Country was divided into many states and Governor ruled those states. In Chalukya dynasty King’s post was not hereditary. If King died, his son did not occupy the king’s throne. But if elder brother died, his younger brother became King. Kings not only learned warfare but also learned Manu Shastra, Dharma Shastra and Vedas. They got titles like Maharajan, Sri Pruthvi Vallabhan, Sathyachirayan, and Parameswaran. According to Hirakathahalli copper insciptions kings ruled excellently. Princess of Chalukyas appointed as governors of states. Aihole inscriptions tells about King, prime minister, revenue minister Amathya, and treasury minister Samakartha.
Empire was divided into Vishayam, Rashtram, country and village. Vishaypathi(District collector), Samantha (landlords), Gramabhogi (village administrator), Mabhatra helped kings and governors in administration. Mahajan is a people’s group taking care of law and order in the village.
Society
There was caste system in Chalukya period but no disparities mentioned. Higher caste women got many rights.
Economy
Agriculture was main occupation. Weavers, carpenters and metal smiths got special position in the society. Traders sold agricultural products produced from the lands which was fertile due to Cauvery and Narmada to North India.
Religious status
People followed Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Religious tolerance was there. During the reign of Pulakeshin II the three religions were grown. Ravi Keerthy in his cabinet followed Jainism. He only inscribed Aihole inscriptions. Chinese traveler yuan – s-Vang visited Pulakeshin II courtyard. He mentioned that in Chalukya country Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism followers were lived.
Architecture during Chalukya period’s
They built temples in Vesara style. Chalukya style temples can be seen in Aihole, Badami and Pattadakkal. In Ajantha, Ellora, Nasik and Badami there are cave temples built by them. Aihole had 70 temples built by Chalukyas. It is called as temple city. In Aihole there are famous temple like Lad Khan temple (Shiva Temple) which has plain roof with pillars, Durga temple which was built like a Buddhist Saithiyas, and Hucchimalli Gudi temples are famous temples of Chalukya dynasty. Meguti Jain temple also built beautifully by them.
Just like Aihole they built temples in Badami also. Mutheeswarar temple and Melakkutti Shivan temple are famous due to minute architecture works.
Near Badami there were 4 cave temples. They are decorated with sculptures in walls, pillars. And they have beautiful sculptures of gods and human beings too.
In Pattadakkal they built 10 temples out of this 6 were built in Dravidian architecture style and 4 were in North Indian style. Papanathar temple which was built in North Indian style has wonderful artworks. Sangameshwarar and Virubakshar temples are also good and it built this Virubakshar temple sculptors went from kanchipuram. It was built like Kailasanatha temple of Kanchipuram. Te architects who built Pattadakkal temples were given title as ‘Tribhuvanacharya’(created 3 worlds)
Paintings
In painting Chalukyas followed the Vakataka style. They painted 10 Avatars of Vishnu. They painted walls of temples and Chalukya king Mangalesan’s palace also had paintings.
Cultural contributions of Chalukyas
Chalukyas had religious tolerance. They promoted scholars from Hinduism , Buddhism and Jainism. Pulakeshin II was a patron in supporting arts and literature. Ravikeerthy a scholar in his courtyard built Aihole inscriptions. This inscriptions describes about Pulakeshin II’s victory, politics, economy and social status.
They built more than 70 temples in Aihole and it is called as temple city.
Virubhakshar temple built like Kailasanathar temple of Kanchipuram is contribution of Chalukyas to Indian culture.
Rashtrakuta Dynasty
Rashtrakutas ruled India deom 6th to 10th century CE. The inscription found in 7th century about their land donation was the first document as an evidence for their rulings.
Governance/Administration
King was the head of all departments. Prince was basically selected according to the eligibility. King set up cabinet for his convenience in administration. Empire was divided as Rashtram, Vishayam and Bhukti and ruled. The head of Rashtra was Rashtrapathi.
Religions
Most people followed Saivism and Vaishnavism in their period. Their Mudra(seal) has sitting Shiva and Garuda images. Thulabharam, and Hiranyagarbam like festivals of Hinduism was celebrated. Jainism was also grown and Hindu temple were maintained well.
Economy
They got income from various departments. They collected taxes from those who have accepted their management and through forests and lands. Tax from cultivation land is called as Utharangam. That was ¼ of the yield.
Literature
These scholars wrote books.
Samanasena -Adhipuran
Mahavira Acharya – Ganitha Sarasamhiram
Katiyanar – Amohavrudhi
King Amohavarshan – Kavirajamargam (kannada)
Thrivikrama – Nalisambhu
Halayudha – Kavirahasyam
Ponna – Shanthi purana
Pamba was the best among Kannada poets.
Art works of Rashtrakuta
In Ellora,Maharashtra Kailasanathar temple, carved out of cave, was
built by Krishna I. It is made out of DECCAN ROCK DEPOSITS
which is a formation of volcanic rocks in Maharashtra. This
incomparable treasure of Indian history of arts, is a single stone
carved cave temple built as good as a concrete temple. It was built
in the style of Parthenon temple of Athens, but 1 ½ times taller than
that. The veranda of this temple is 276 feet long and has traditional
temple like 4 basic parts of a temple. It has front with Gopura
(tower), Nandi Mandapa(hall), pillar hall and sanctum with
Vimana(Tomb).
Elephenda caves
This island is situated 10 KM from Mumbai harbour. When
Portuguese saw the big sculptures of elephant they named this place
as Elephenda caves. It has old name as Karapuri. The specialty of
this cave is it ws carved out as a pillar is supporting the roof. Inside
the cave, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva were carved out in a single
stone. The beautiful statue of Maheshwara Murthy statue depicts the
3 profession of God, creation, preservation and destruction.
Paintings
The paintings in Ellora are of Buddhism. Kailasanathar temple has
wonderful paintings of Shiva, Parvathy, Murugan and Ganesha.
Contribution of Rashtrakutas to Indian culture
Ellora Kailasanatha temple and Elephenda caves are approved as
world heritage symbols.
Rashtrakutas issued suvarna and thiramma named gold coins and
silver coins.
Single stone paintings were considered as the best.
The sculptures of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism in the cave
paintings reveals that they had religious tolerance.
Sanskrit and Kannada literature flourished during their period.
Hoysala Culture
Hoysala ruled Mysore regions in Karnataka. Their capital city was initially at sochavur near Belur, later shifted to Halebidu. Their dynasty started with king Nirbhakama - ruled from 1026-1047CE and ended with Vira Pallalar III - ruled from 1292-1343. Vira Pallalar II supported poet Rudrabhatt. His notes tells about the political, economical and social status of Hoysala.
Administrative divisions
For their convenience in administration they divided their country into Vishayam, Kambana and Desam. States were ruled by Mahapradana and justice department was administered by Dandanayaka.
Contribution to art and architecture
The temples built in their times were in star shape or had many angles. The outer ceiling is decorated with bouquet like engravings. Many buildings has 2 or 4 gopuram (towers).
In Belur Chennakesava temple. Wherever you see there is a sculpture in that place. The human statues here are looking like real human beings. There are 42 sculpture of humans are there and each one express the feelings like angry, happiness, proud, sorrow, love. These sculptures were made from Makkal (powdery stone)
Hoysala empire’s capital was Halabidu (mouth of the sea).Ketharoja built Hoysaeshwar temple at Halabidu. The sculptures and pillars are example of Hoysala style architecture. The statues of soldiers in this temple are examples of artistry. Kedarishwar temple is called as divine ornament and the sculptures with minute detailing are amazing.
Belur Vijay Narayana temple (Chenna Kesava temple) was built by Vishnu vardhan. This temple was built with green and dark blue fine sandstone.
Basthihalli Parsvanathar
In Basthihalli Parsvanatha temple was built. The pillars here are magical. They reflect our images.
Kesava Temple- Somnathpur
Kesava temple at Somnathpur is an example of Hoysala style of art. It is situated at 20 km from Sri Rangapatnam. This temple has 3 sannathis( sanctum) called Thrikudasalam.
Vesara style Lakshmi Narasimha temple, Naguhalli temple, Eswara temple (Arikesari) are fie examples of Hoysala architect.
Languages
They gave importance to Kannada language. Many literature were written in their period. Sanskrit also developed.
Literature
Nagachandra a Jain, who was supported by Vishvardhan wrote Ramayana. Rajathiyan wrote mathematical laws in poetry form. Nemichandran a Jain wrote a novel named Lilavathi. Areeswaran who wrote Girija Kalyanam and Ragavangan wrote Harichandra Kaviyam were Vir Saivites.
Contribution of Hoysala to Idian culture
All temples built by Hoysala have sanctum, hall and veranda.
The architecture of Hoysala is star shaped.
They gave importance to dance, music and drama.
Bhakti literati like Ramanuja and Madhwa were lived in Hoysala era. Madhwar wrote rig veda bhashyam in their period.
The best writers of Kannada language like Hariharar, Ragavanga, Jana were lived in Hoysala period.
The Vir Saivism developed during that time.
Their administration was called as Pancha Pradhan. There were 5 ministers in their administration. This idea was pioneer to Sivaji’s administration of Ashta Praaadhan.
Belur, Halebidu temples are recognized by UNESCO as world heritage symbols. These are the examples of Hoysala architecture and arts.
Pallava culture
Thondai Mandalam was ruled by Later Pallavas. Best Pallava Kings are Simma Vishnu. Mahendra Verman I, Narasimha Verman I, Raja Simhan, Nandi Verman III.
Evidences
Copper inscriptions of Kasakkudi, Maddavilasa Prahasanam by Mahendra verman I, Nandi Kalambaka Devara padalgal (songs) about Nandi verman III an dChinese Traveler Yuan s Vang's notes, Valour stones in Ambur and Olikkur, Pancha Pandava Ratham(chariot), Seashore temples, cave temples in Mamallapuram are evidences to know about later Pallavas.
Administration
King was the leader of the Pallava country. He was called as Kon Irai. King was the head of the departments of Justice, defence and administration. Manthrimandalam was a group of ministers which gave advice to the King. Brahmarajan, Perarayan like titles were given to ministers. To help king there were people like separate advisor, guards, clerk, arbitrator, treasury protector named( தமிழ்மாணிக்கம் பிள்ளைக் காப்பான்) Donation officer named கொடுக்காப்பிள்ளை and Adikaruneekr. Administration was done by dividing into many departments like revenue department, land tax department , survey department, police department, forest department, and defence.
Pallava country was divided into many Rashtrams(zones), Kottams
(divisions), Nadu, and oor (village). There were 24 divisions in
Pallava administration. Rashtrikar was a governor of state. Those
who ruled was called as Nattar. Oor was ruled by Oorar and small
villages were ruled by azhwars. Nattar’s main work was to
announce the orders of the king to people. It was called as Arai Olai.
Small villages are the last section of the administrative division.
They were called as Brahmadeya Sitroor and Devadana sitroor.
Gram Sabha took care of village administration.
Justice department
In Pallava period, council of justice were called as Adikaranangal.
Adikaranikar or Adikaranaboshakar was the head of the court. The
place of where the justice was announced called as Adikarana
Mandapam. In small towns the council of justice was called as
Karanam. In the courts of Pallava period, cases were argued with
witnesses, evidences and third party witnesses. High court was
called as Dharmasanam. It was under King’s direct observation.
King was the chief Justice. Nandi Verman’s Kasakkudi inscriptions
describes about the penalties levied during the Pallava
administration. The penalties levied by upper courts were called as
karna Dhandam and lower courts were called as Adikarna Dhandam.
Defence
Pallava dynasty had elephantry, chariotry, cavalry and infantry and
navy. Kooram Pattayam (Government Order) Copper inscription
tells about the Pallava’s strength of the defence forces and their
methods of warfare. Velur inscriptions tells about weapons of
Pallava. Narasimha Verma I, with his strong Navy fought with Sri
Lanka and won the war for his friend Manaverman. Rajasimha
Pallavan won Lakshdweep with his navy.
Society
Caste systom was prvailed in Pallava period. Brahmin, Kshatriya,
Vaisya and Shudra were the 4 communities in the society. Kooram
inscriptions of Pareswaran I and Kasakkudi inscriptions of
Nandiverman I tell that the theories of Hinduism got importance in
the society. Many communities based on the occupation lived in
Pallava period, like farmers, traders, artists, goldsmiths,
blacksmiths, craftsmen, carpenter and fishermen.
Traders were divided into Sudesi, Nanadesikan, Ainutruvar
themselves. Nana desikan branch of traders did exports.
Religions
Saivism, Vainavism and Jainism were followed by people.
Thirugnana Sambandar, Thiru navukkarasar, Sundarar spread
Saivism. People followed their preaching and listened their poems.
Poigai Azhwar, Buthathazhwar, Peyashwar and Thirumangaiazhwar
spread Vainavism. Sapta Matha and Jyeshta worships were popular.
Saktham -
Worshiping
Shakti, Kaumaram – worshiping Muruga and
Sowram - worshiping Sun god were followed.During this period
only Ganabathyam – Ganesha worship spread to Pallava country
from Chalukya country. In their period six types of worships were
existed.
There were religious conflicts between Jainism and Saivism during
Pallava period. Jains lived in காஞ்சிபுரம், வள்ளிமலை,
பொன்னூர், திருக்காட்டுப்பள்ளி, செந்தலை,
திருப்பாதிரிப்புலியூர். According to Chinese Traveler,
Yuan Chang ’s notes, people followed Buddhism also. And these
notes revealed that in Kanchipuram, there were 100 Buddhist
monasteries and 1000 Buddhist lived there.Bothimangai, Pazhaiarai
and Nagappitinam like places were famous for Buddhism.
Status of women
Women were highly considered respected during Pallava period.
They participated in temple and religious works. Women had
property rights. Queen and royal women participated in temple
works. Gave donations to temples. Weaving, selling flowers and
milk were the occupation done by women.
Economic status
Agriculture was the main occupation in Pallava period. There were
two types of taxes collected. First one was one sixth of the yield
collected by village administrators and gave it to the king. The
second type of tax was collected in village level and used for village
development irrigation, lighting of temple etc). Cattle breeders,
Marriage parties, potters and weavers were also paid taxes.
Barter system of trade was there in business. At the same time gold
and silver coins were also in use. Cotton clothes, aromatics, precious
gems, herbs were exported to ஜாவா,
சுமத்ரா, கம்போ டியா, இலங்கை, சீனா,
பர்மா like Asian countries. Mamallapuram was a main port and
Kanchipuram was a main trade centre.
Literature
Tamil and Sanskrit books were written in their period.
Mahendraverman I wrote Matha vilasa Prahasanam.
போதயானர் என்பவர் பாகவஜீகம், தண்டின்
என்பவர் தசகுமார சரிதம், அவந்திசுந்தரி
கதச்சாரம், சர்வநந்தி என்பவர்
லோகவிபாகம் written in Sanskrit. Their stone inscriptions,
copper plate inscriptions were mostly in Tamil.
சேரமான் பெருமாள் நாயனார் –
ஞானவுலா, பொன்வண்ணத்து அந்தாதி,
மும்மணிக் கோவை
கங்கநாட்டு மன்னன் கொங்கு வேளிர் –
கொங்கு வேளிர் மாக்கதை (பெருங்கதை)
மூன்றாம் சிம்மவர்மன் – சிவத்தளி
வெண்பா
தோலா ம�ொழித்தேவர் – சூளாமணி
பெருந்தேவனார் – பாரத வெண்பா
திருஞான சம்பந்தர், அப்பர், சுந்தரர்
– தேவாரம் மற்றும் ‘நந்திக்கலம்பகம்
(3 ஆம் நந்திவர்மனைப் பற்றியது)
முத்தொள்ளாயிரம் (மூவேந்தர்கள ைப்
பற்றியது), மற்றும் இலக்கண
நூல்களாக சங்கயாப்பு பாட்டியல் நூல்,
மாபுராணம் போன்றவை இக்காலத்தைச்
சார்ந்தவையாகும்.
Architecture
Pallava period architecture was divided into 3 main divisions.
1. Cave temples -Mahendra verman I style
2. Single stone chariots – Narasimha verman I style
3. Concrete constructed temples – Raja simhan and Nandi verman styles.
Cave temples
(Already covered in 11th)
Mahendra verman I was called as Sethakari due to his efficiency in
building temples. Mamallan (Narasimha verman I) cave temples
were built in Mamallapuram. Chariots were also carved. The pillars
of the halls built during his times had images of lions sitting with
back legs and standing with front legs.
The achievements of Narasimha Verman I were Chariots carved out
of single stones in Mamallapuram. The five chariots in a single
place are called as Panch Pandava Raths They are
1) திரெளபதிரதம்
2) அர்ச்சுனரதம்
3) பீமரதம்
4) தர்மராஜரதம்
5) நகுல, சகாதேவ ரதம் ஆகியவையாகும்.
In Arjuna Rath(Chariot) Shiva, Vishnu, Mithuna, Dwar Balakas
(Guards) idols were carved with artistry. Biggest among these
chariots is Dharma Rath with Square shaped base and 3 stories
viman(Tomb). Beem Rath has rectangular base and 3 stories viman
(tomb). The idols of Brahma, Vishnu, Hariharar, Skandar, Shiva,
Arthanarishwar, Gangadhar were carved in those chariots. Smallest
rath was Draupathi rath and it was dedicated to Durga.
The sculptures carved in the open rocks were the best exhibition of
arts. Important one was the sculpture of river Ganges coming from
the sky. It is called Bhagirath penance or Arjun penance.
Concrete constructed temples
Rajasimhan introduced these types of temples. Rock stones were
carved and with that they built sanctum upon that vimanam(Tomb),
halls, veranda and compound walls.
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