Mamallapuram sea shore temple
It was built during the period of Rajasimhan with 3 sanctums.
There were separate sanctums for Shiva and Vishnu. There
were relief sculptures carved near the sanctum of Vishnu on
both inside and outside of the compound wall. This is
considered as the first temple
in south India which was constructed like this. This temple
has 4 stories which were carved from a rock. காஞ்சி
முத்தேஸ்வரர்கோயில், கூரம் பெருமாள்
கோயில், திருத்தணி
வாடாமல்லீஸ்வரர் கோயில், குடிமல்லம்
பரமேஸ்வரர் கோயில் are Nandiverman period
temples.
Art of Sculpture
Pallava sculptures are mainly relief sculptures. Their
constructed temples mostly have Somaskanda relief sculpture
and well polished Shiva Lingam with 16 Vibuthi marks which
is the specialty of pallava period sculpture. These sculptures
are lively and like moving. Queens full length statues were
made in their times. மாமல்லபுரத்தில் காணப்படும்
ஒற்றைக்கல் சிங்கம், யானை, குரங்கு
பேன்பார்க்கும் காட்சி,
மகிஷாசுரமர்த்தினியின்
போர்க்கோலக் காட்சி, திரௌபதி ரதத்தில்
காணப்படும் சிற்பங்கள்,
கோவர்த்தனகிரியைக்கண்ணன் தாங்கிப்
பிடிக்கும் காட்சி sculptures are carved. There declares the
speciality of Pallava period.
Music
They encouraged music. Kudumiyanmalai inscriptions
starting with “ Sitham Namashivaya” mentions about many
tactics of music and ragas. Rudracharya’s disciple Mahendra
verman I was expert in playing Parivadini veena. He got
Sangeeranasathi title also. Rajasimhan got Vady Vidhyadaran
and Adodhya (expert in playing veena) Thamburu titles.
யாழ், குழல், கின்னரி, கொக்கரி,
வீணை, தக்கை, முழவம், ம�ொந்தை ,
மிருதங்கம், மத்தளம், துந்துபி, தமுருகம், துடி,
தாளம், உடுக்கை, கொடுகெட்டி, தத்தலம்,
குடமுழா, முரசம் ஆகிய இசைக்கருவிகள்
பயன்படுத்தப்பட்டதாகத் தேவாரப்பாடல்கள்
கூறுகின்றன.
Dancing art
Paintings and sculptures found in Kanchi Kailasanathar
temple and Vaikuntha perumal temple tells the expertise of
dancing art in Pallava period. Drama and dancing arts were
highly liked. Mathavilasa Prahasanam by Mahendra verman I
describes the lifestyles of people along with religious opinions.
Paintings can be seen in pillars and walls of Kanchi
Kailasanathar temple and Panaimalai Thalageeswarar temple.
Mahendraverman I was expert in paintings also so he got the
title chitrakarapuli. M.V. Dubreuil a France citizen found the
Pallava paintings and revealed it to the found. The nataraja
paintings in Kailasanathar temple,
Kanchipuram exhibits many dancing postures.
Education
During Pallava period educational institutions were at
Kanchipuram, Bahur and Pazhampathi. They acted as a
teaching place of higher education and Sanskrit. Dharmabalar
who studied at Kanchi university was professor at Nalanda
University. Appar praise3d
Kanchipuram as ‘’கல்வியிற் கரையிலாத
காஞ்சிமாநகர்” (No ending to education in Kanchipuram).
Temples, Monasteries and Brahmin streets were educational
centers.
In Kanchi Kailasanathar temple, art of sculpture, dancing,
singing, painting, drama, Mahabharata and Ramayana were
taught. Buddhist
educational institutions were called as Kadigai.
Contributions of Pallava to Indian culture
Both Tamil literature and Sanskrit literature were attained
great place.
Azhwars and Nayanmars contributed to tamil literature.
Because of that both Saivism and Vainavism developed.
Kalambakam, a style of minor literature was originated. Nandi
verman kalambakam is an example to this style.
Dravidian style of architecture was a pioneer to later Pallava
temples.
Pallava kings were patrons/sponsors in supporting arts and
literature.
Sapthamadha and Jeshta Devi like goddess worship were
followed.
Cave temples and single stone chariots were built in their
times.
Ganapathyam worshiping Ganesha was introduced in Tamil
Nadu during their period.
Culture during Chozha period
Chozha empire was one of the triple dynasties that were ruled in ancient Tamil Nadu. The cauvery delta parts were fertile lands and in a proverb it was said that சோழ நாடு சோறுடைத்து‘ என்பது முதுமொழி. So those regions were called as Chozha Nadu. After the 9th century CE the strong Chozha kings were called as later Chozhas. In Indian history Rajaraja Chozha I and his son Rajendra Chozha I were notable kings. Their boundaries were widespread up to Orissa in the North, up to Java, Sumatra and Malasia in the east, up to Maldives in the South.
Later Chozha won battles beyond seas. Their flag had tiger symbol. During Rajendra Chozha I period, their force invaded up to Ganges in the north and with the help of Navy went up to Kadaram and Shri Vijayam in Malai peninsula and invaded.
Evidences
To know the history of later Chozhas, stone inscriptions compiled by historians like Vengauya, Ulch, Krishna Shastry, inscriptions of Anbil, copper inscriptions in Thiruvalangadu, Krandhai, Anai Mangalam, Laidon are evidences. And literature, stone inscriptions (telling about the real works done by Kings - மெய்க்கீர்த்திகள்), coins, architecture, sculpture, paintings, images are also helpful evidences.
Meikeerthigal (telling about the real works done by Kings)
Those were documents which explains the famous achievements of kings. It got importance during Rajaraja I. After him, chozha kings made this as a government document to show their achievements.
Administrative divisions
Chozha empire was divided into 9 zones. The smallest zone was village. Many villages formed Nadu, Many nadu formed many Valanadu, Many valanadu formed Zones.
Governance of Chozha
Kings followed Monarchy system of government. In order to rule the country after the death of the kings, their elder sons became princes. When the princes were crowned they got titles as சக்கரவர்த்திகள், திரிபுவன சக்கரவர்த்திகள்,
இராஜகேசரி வர்மன், பரகேசரி வர்மன்,
இராஜாதி ராஜன். Those who worked under the kings were called as Sirudhanam and perudhanam.
திருவாய் கேள்வி - அரசனின்
ஆணைகளை வெளியிடுபவர்
திருமந்திர ஓலை நாயகம் - அரசின்
ஆணைகளை ஓலையில் எழுதுபவர்
கருமவிதிகள் - ஆணைகளை நாட்டின் பல
இடங்களுக்குக் கொண்டு செல்பவர்.
புரவுவரி திணைக் களத்தார் - நிலவரிக்
கழகம்
வரிப்பொத்தகக் கணக்கு- தணிக்கை
அதிகாரி
திருமுகக் கணக்கு – அரண்மனைக்
கணக்காளர்
நாடுவகை செய்வார் – விளை நிலத்தின்
தரத்தைப் பிரிப்பவர்
நாடு காவல் அதிகாரி – நாட்டில்
அமைதியை நிலைநாட்டுபவர்.
போன்றோர் அரசவையில்
இடம்பெற்றிருந்தனர்.
Village administration
Village administration was in good condition. Utharamerur stone inscriptions tells about their method of village administration.
Kudavolai system
The stone inscriptions of paranthaka I explains in detail about the selection process of members through Kudavolai system.
Qualifications of a member of Gram Sabha
He should have kal veli land.(quarter veli)
Should have house in their own land.
Between the age group of 35 to 70.
Should have learned Vedas and mythologies.
After the first term of the member, he can be a member again after 5 years only.
Villages were divided into wards. From each wards, names of the qualified contestants from whom one could be chosen were written on palm leaves. Then these palm leaves were put in a pot and then shuffled. A small boy below the age of 5 years was asked to pick one palm leaf at a time. The name on that palm leaf wad declared as a winner. Like this members of Gram Sabha was selected.
Forces
Chozha kings captured countries beyond the seas. They had
efficient navy, infantry and elephantry. During the periods of
Rajarajan I and Rajendran I there was a force called
‘மூன்று கை மகாசேனை‘ which won many wars in
inland and foreign land.
Social life
During the Chozha period caste system was in significant
place. Apart fromcastes like Brahmin, vanikar(business
community), velalar(farming community), and
padaivirar(defence people) communities were divided
according to their occupations also. There were caste
disparities in their time.
Chozha kings donated Iraiyili (they don’t ownthe land but
need not had to pay taxes) lands to Brahmins in the names of
Cathurvedi mangalam, Brahmadeyam. And appointed them in
temples. Those who explains meaning of Vedas were give
Vedhavruthi those who told Mahabharatha stories were given
Bharathavruthi, those told puranas got puranavruthi lands.
Temple works and charities were also handed over to
brahmins. Tho who were doing these works were called
Mulapparudayor (‘மூலப்பருடையோர்‘).
Status of women
Women were in good position. One man - one women system
was there in marriages. Some inscriptions tells about Sati
system (after the death of her husband wife sacrifices her life).
In the Thiruvangadu copper inscriptions, mentions were there
about, the wife of வீரச்சோழ
இளங்கோவேள்named Kodumbalur under king’s wife
self immolated herself during the period of Paranthaka
Chozha I and Vanavan Madeviyar, who was Rajarajan’s
mother and Sundara Chozha’s wife did Sati (sacrificed her life
by entering in to the funeral pyre of her husband).
Economic status
Farmers were considered as an important person in the
society. They were called as “சித்திரமேழிய பெரிய
நாட்டார்" . Traders were called as Vaaniyar . During thweir
pewriod there were many divisions in traders called,
நகரத்தார், மணிக்கிராமத்தார், வலஞ்சியர்,
நானாதேசிகள், திசையாயிரத்து
ஐந்நூற்றாவர்.
Education
During Chozha period lessons were taught in Tamil and
Sanskrit. Temples were like Veda teaching institutions.
Kamappullur inscriptions declares that Paranthaka I gave
subsidy to start Veda patshala.(school). Aniyur inscriptions
tells about the qualifications needed for the teachers who
taught Veda and grammar during Rajaraja I period. In
Rajendra I period there were Veda schools at திரிபுவனம்,
எண்ணாயிரம், திருவொற்றியூர், வேம்பந்தூர்.
Tamil literature was its peak during the later Chozha period.
Immortal literature was written in their period. Those are :-
ஔவையார் - ஆத்திசூடி,
கொன்றைவேந்தன், நல்வழி, மூதுரை.
சேக்கிழார் - பெரியபுராணம் அல்லது
திருத்தொண்டர் புராணம்.
கம்பர் - கம்பராமாயணம், ஏரெழுபது,
சடகோபரந்தாதி, சரஸ்வதி அந்தாதி,
இலக்குமி அந்தாதி, சிலை எழுபது
புகழேந்திப்புலவர் - நளவெண்பா
ஒட்டக்கூத்தர் - மூவருலா, பிள்ளைத்
தமிழ் (குலோத்துங்க சோழன்)
ஜெயங்கொண்டார் -
கலிங்கத்துப்பரணி
கச்சியப்ப சிவாச்சாரியார் -
கந்த புராணம்.
Nambiyandar nambi compiled Saiva Thirumaraigal. 14 Saiva
reigious shstra books were written after the period of
Sekkhizhar.
In temples Thiruppavai and Thiruvembavai were recited.
Saiva Sidhantha books were written in this period.
மெய்கண்டார்
சிவஞானபோதம் என்ற நூலை இயற்றினார்.
வாகீச முனிவரின் ஞானாமிர்தம்,
திருவிய்யலூர் உய்யவந்த தேவநாயனார்
எழுதிய திருவுந்தியார். அருள்நந்தி
சிவாச்சாரியார் எழுதிய சிவஞானசித்தியார்,
உமாபதி சிவாச்சாரியாரின் எட்டு நூல்கள்
சோழர்காலத்தில் இயற்றப்பட்டன.
Religion
Chozha kings were followed Saivism. Both Saiva and Vainava
monastries and temples were built and theywere at their peak
in this time. In the monasteries the charity works like serving
food, giving money to light the lamps and treating the unwell
persons were done.
Architecture
Buildings of earlier Chozha period is less seen. Sundareshwar
temple at Thirukkattalai, Vijayalaya Cholishwaram temple at
Naarthamalai, Moovar temple at Kodumbalur are some of
them. Those who are standing today are stone temples.
Thanjavur Brahdeeshwarar temple
This temple was built by Rajaraja I started in CE 1003 and
ended in CE 1010. This temple was very importance to Chozha
kingdom. The maturity of the architecture of Chozha period
can be seen in this temple. It is a crown in their architecture.
The size of the sanctum is 90 feet length and 90 feet breadth.
And upon it built 216 feet (from the ground) viman (tower). It
is called as “‘இராசராசன் தக்கணமேரு‘"
Dakshinameru of Rajarajan . Meaning of it is Southern
Himalayas. It is also called as Rajareshwaram.
Gangai konda Chozhapuram
Rajarajan I built this temple to commemorate his victory og
Ganges region. It is also called as Gangai Chozhiswaqram.
The height of the viman(tower) is 150 feet. Inside the temple,
Natarajar temple is in the south side, Chandikeshwarar
temple in the north side, Linga temple in the west side. There
is a lake named as Chozha Gangam in this place built by him.
Iravadeshwar temple at Darasuram
It was built during Rajaraja II period. There is a stone
sculptured chariot with wheels in this temple. This was built
in Dravida, Vesara and Nagara styles of architecture. In the
walls of this temple sculptures of 63 Nayanmars can be seen.
Kambakeshwarar temple- Thribhuvanam
Kulothungan II built this temple to commemorate the victory
of Pandiya kings and got the title of Thribhuvana Vira Devan
at Madurai.
Sculpture
Chozha period sculptures can be seen in their temples and
pillars. Generally Shiva temples have sculptures of Lingam in
the west side of sanctum, Dakshinamoorthy in the south side
and Brahma in the west side.
Idols art (images)
Like stone statues, metal casting statues were created and
worshiped. Statues (idols) were made out of copper, bronze
and silver. Nataraja statue is the best of Chozha statues and
world famous.
Paintings
The paintings seen at sanctum of Thanjai Peruvudayar temple
is excellent. Best among those paintings are Sundarar history,
Shiva sitting on tiger in Kailayam and Sundarar sitting on
elephant.
Dancing art
Evidences of dancing arts in Chozha period is visible in the
dancing ladies sculpture seen at Thanjavur, Kanchipuram and
Chidambaram temples and mentions about dances in
Periyapuranam and Kamba Ramyanam. Dancing artists in
Chozha period got tittles like மாணிக்கம், காவிதி,
தலைக்கோலி.
Music
Aichiyar kuravai was a notable form of music during Chozha
period. 7 tunes of music was playing each in different styles
and Namachivaya was pronounced differently and showed
elegance of sound each time. This is called Aichiyar kuravai.
கலிங்கத்துப்பரணி, சீவகசிந்தாமணி,
பெரியபுராணம் , திருவிசைப்பா were musical
poems. Thirurhandagam, (lands) were donated to those who
sung Devaram songs and Thiruppathihangal.
Contribution of Chozha to Indian culture
If kind didn’t have heir to take charge as a king any one from
the dynasty or out of dynasty became king. This is the best
example of good government.
Selecting members for Gram Sabha through Kudavolai system.
Ward system introduced in Chozha period is a pioneer to
today’s rural Panchayat system.
Lands were measured, surveyed and taxed quality-wise in
Chozha period. Rajaraja I measured and divided the lands
quali-wise so he was called as ‘Ulagalanda Chozhan’.
Five Major literature, 5 Minor literature, grammar books and
Nikandugal were contribution to Tamil literature and Indian
culture.
Nalayaira Divya Prabandhan compiled by Nadanmunigal was
the biggest contribution to literature. Kulothunga chozha
pereri and Rasendra chozha pereri are some of the lakes
created by Chozhas.
The process of selecting teachers and their required
qualifications during Chozha period can be seen in
inscriptions.
Veda education and medical education were their contribution
too.
Culture during Pandya period
Later Pandyas raised under the leadership of Sadayaverman I in the end of 12th century CE.Maraverman Sundara pandiyan I, Sadayaverman Sundara pandiyan I and Mara verman Kulasekara Pandiyan were some of the best kings in later Pandya dynasty. Vayalur stone inscriptions by Kopperu singan is helping to know about later Pandya kings.
Administsration
Later Pandya empire was divided into Mandalam (zone), Valanadu and Oor. மதுரோதய வளநாடு, ஸ்ரீவல்லப வளநாடு, பராந்தக வளநாடு, சுமிதரணவளநாடு were mentioned in inscriptions. King was the head of the empire. Mahamandirar named cabinet was there to help the King. Head of each force was called as senathipathi (head of force) and commander of all the forces was called as Mahasaamanthan. Those who did palace works were called as அகப்பரிவர முதலி, திருவாசல் முதலி.
To collect taxes புரவுவரித் திணைக்களத்து முகவெட்டி named tax collector was appointed. Chief officer was called as திணைக்களநாயகம். Those who fix the taxes were called as நாடு வகை செய்வோர் and those who collected taxes were called as mudali.
Divisions of forces
Later Pandya kings had infantry, elephantry, chariotry and cavalry. Apart from these to manage emergency times they had முனையெ திர்மோகர், தென்னவன்உதவிகள். The overseeing officer named ஆராய்ச்சி நாயகம் was there to look after the military camps.
Judicial department
Their judicial department was called as Dharmasanam. King was the chief of it. Local bodies investigated the crimes. Those cases which were rejected by local bodies were investigated in the court of the king.
Local governments
Local government setup was strong during Pandya period. There were 3 setups.
1. Brahmadeya sabha ( Brahmins were there).
2. Sabha where Brahmadeyam was not there.
3. Traders Nagara (town) Sabha.
Manur stone inscriptions mentions about the above mentioned sabhas.
Social status
During Pandya period 4 sects of people, King, Brahmans, farmers and traders were lived. மறவர்,(soldiers) தச்சர்,(carpenters) ஆயர்(Shepherds), கொல்லர்(smith), மருத்துவர்(physicians), நெசவாளர் (weaver), முத்துக்குளிப்போர்(pearl smiths) like other sects people were also lived. During the Maraverman I period, Agraharangal (where brahmins lived) living quarters were constructed for brahmins and named as அவனி வேந்த
சதுர்வேதி மங்கலம்.
Pearl collecting was a main occupation during later Pandya period. Many people were there to find pearls from the sea. Traders street were called as நானாதேசிகப்பெருந்தெரு,
ஐந்நூற்றுவர்பெருந்தெரு. Traders involved in temple charity works also. Farmers did cultivation and they were called as Bhoomiputrargal and nattu makkal(country people). The sect which includes land lords and farmers was called as சித்திரமேழி பெரிய நாட்டார்(Chithiramezhi periya naattar). Those who were doing plowing were called as ‘மேழிச் செல்வம்.(mezhi selvam) Those who did 18 types of occupation were called as ‘இரதகாரர்கள்‘ Radhakarargal.
Foreign travelers like Marco Polo and Vazab registered the following points about Social status of Pandya period in their travelogue.
People lived in Pandya country worshiped Cows.
Kept their houses clean and mopped their houses with cow dung.
People sat on the floor without discrimination.
Common people’s clothes were simple and royal family people’s clothes were luxurious.
People had the habit of eating break fast after taking birth only.
Drinking alcohol was considered as a crime and it became tradition to ignore the drunkard’s talks.
Women were in high position.
Royal ladies donated lands to temples.
In the month of Margazhi women took bath and made rangolis outside their houses and kept fast.
Bride’s side gave dowry to groom in marriages.
Women stayed in temples and did divine works.
At the age of 13, male child fed his mother with his hard works. He dis not live in his father’s money earned from hard work.
Education
Vedha Patshalas (schools) were there in later Pandya period. Teachers who worked in these schools got
‘பட்டவிருத்தி‘ award and subsidy named ‘சாலபோகம்‘. Education institutions ran by Brahmins was called as Kadigai and Vidhyasthanam. Here they taught mathematics, Vedham, philosophy and religion. Experts in Saiva Siddhantha stayed in Thirupathur monastery in Sivaganga district, and taught lessons. ஸ்ரீவல்லபப் பெருஞ்சாலை (Sri Vallabha Perunsalai) a higher education institution in KanyaKumari and Kandalur 9Trivandrum highway). Kings donated lands to feed the students free of cost. In their period libraries were called as சரஸ்வதி பண்டாரங்கள். Libraries were there in Chidambaram and Cheranmadevi. Pandya kings highly supported the growth of Tamil language.
Economic status
Textile industry was in very good condition during their
period. Weavers paid taxes according to their income like
தறியிறை,பஞ்சுபீலி. Notable trade associations were
நானாதேசிகன், மணிக்கிராமம்,
திசையாயிரத்து ஐந்நூற்றுவர்,
நகரத்தார்சபை, அஞ்சவண்ணத்தார். Later
Pandya people had trade relations with China, Sri Lanka,
Nepal, Sumatra, Arabia, Eden like countries. Nine types of
gems, rare stones, cardamom, pepper, clove, herbs and grains
were exported. Anjuvannathar named Islamic traders stayed
at Nagappattinam and did business. Through them Arabian
horses were imported. According to the notes of Marco polo
and Wazap like foreign travelers, horse trading was going on
excellently in Pandya country.
Land taxes were the main income of the country. One sixth of
the income was collected as tax. இளஞ்சினைப்
பேறு,உழுதுக்குடி, பாடிகாவல்,
தட்டாரப்பாட்டம்,இடைவெளி, பொ ன்வரி,
தறிக்கிறை, செக்கிறை like taxes were collected.
Lands were properly measured in their period. To measure
the land they used scales like குடிதாங்கி, அருள்நீதி
ஊர்க்கோல். Land tax was called Kadamai and
Kanikadan. In their period they used coins like
புதுக்களிகைப் பணம், அன்றாட நற்புதுக்காசு,
தனபாலன்குளிகை.
Religious status
Saivism and Vainavism were followed by people. During this
time only Meikanda Devar wrote Siva Gnana Bodham. In 13th
century CE Saiva Siddhantha monasteries were established.
Maraverman II inscriptions reveals that, 11 thuravi
Odhuvagral were appointed in Thirunelveli Nellayappar
temple to recite saiva siddhantha books. These thuravigal
(sages) belonged to
தேவசந்தானமடம்
பட்டவீர சந்தானமடம்
திருவாரூர் மடம்
பிட்சாமடம்
மதுரை மடம்
அழகிய நாயக சந்தான மடம் (நெல்லை)
ஆகியவற்றைச் சேர்ந்தவர்களாவர்.
During the Pandya period vainavism was also had special
place. Sundara Pandiyan supported vainaviam. Koilozhugu
was written to explain his temple works. Thiruvaikundam
temple Gopuram(tower) was built by Sundara Pandiyan. He
donated Golden kalash (casket) to Tirupati Venkateswara
temple. Sadayaverman Kulasekara Pandiyan, Vikrama
Pandiyan and Mara verman I gave donations to Vainava
temples and helped to celebrate temple festivals. Ahobila
mutt, and Vanamamalai Mutt were in great positions.
Dharmakirthy was a Buddhist scholar lived in their period.
Architecture
During their period extending temple structures were
introduced. In the outer high gopurams (towers), sanctum,
artha mandapam, maha mandapam, surrounding passages,
halls with many pillars were constructed in temples. High
towers were built to made new changes in architecture. They
built side temples in Chidambaram and Sri rangam main
temples. மதுரை மீனாட்சியம்மன் கோயில்,
திருநெல்வேலி நெல்லை யப்பர் கோயில்,
தென்காசி அழகர் கோயில் got better looks in these
period. Artha mandapam, mani mandapam, sactum and front
tower were built in these temples.
Sculpture
Somaskandar, Thirumal, Durgai, Ganapathy, Narasimhar,
Varahar, Nataraja sculptures in Thirupprankundram temple
were important sculptures of their period. Madurai , Then
kasi, Chidambaram and Thirunelveli sculptures are also
examples of their excellency in sculpture. Later Pandya
sculptures resembles Vijaya Nagara empire style of sculptures.
Casting art
Idols of gods, Azhwars and Nayanmars copper statues,
Nataraja statue are the examples of growth and developments
ofcasting art in Pandya period.
Dancing art
Dancers danced in temple and palaces. Importance of dancing
art and its growth can be seen in temple sculptures. Nataraja
posing in Chathurathandava in the temples of Chidambaram
and Thirupparankundram are the best examples of dancing.
Music
Music got importance in their period. Pandyas nurtured music
arts and this can be seen in the sculptures in temples having
the instruments like வீரமத்தளம், மத்தளம்,
திபிலை, சேமக்கலம், திருச்சின்னம்.
Art of Drama
In temples dramas were played. Drama halls were called as
Azhagiya Pandiyan kudam.
Kuthukkani, lands were donated to drama artists. Female
artists got thalaikkol title. According to Athur temple
inscriptions, two varieties of dramas Santhikoothu and
vinotha koothu were there.
Later Pandyas contributions to Indian culture
Brought changes in Gopura (Tower) architecture.
Royal administrative training was also given to students along
with free meal.Because of the establishments of libraries like
Saraswathi Bhandaram they taught Vedas and mythologies
and made their contributions to Indian culture.
Fine arts like music, dance, painting and sculpture were
significantly grown.
Indian culture during Delhi Sultans period
Indian history got new dimensions during the Delhi Sultan’s growth and development. Those changes brought changes in culture. From CE 1206 to CE1526 5 dynasties were ruled Delhi. During their reign, religious governance was implemented. Religion and politics were the two sides of the government. Sultan was the name the rulers called themselves. They were just for name sake obedient to the Caliphs.
Evidences
Literature written during the Sultan era are helping to know about their history. அல்பெருனி எழுதிய தாரிக்-உல். ஹிந்து, ஹாசன் நிசாமி எழுதிய தாஜ்
– உல்-மாசீர், மின்ஹஜ் – சிராஜ் – உஸ் எழுதிய
தபகத் –இ-நாசீரி, அமீர்குஸ்ரு எழுதிய ‘துக்ளக் நாமா‘ like books are helping to know the names of kings and their successors, life style of people and culture.
Travelogue of foreign travelers traveled to Medieval India tells about the political, social and cultural status of India during that period. Ibn Battuta’s travelogue mentions about the life and culture of people in Delhi and Madurai. Abdur Razzak mentioned about south Indian people’s life style, status and culture. மார்க்கோபோலோ, நிக்கோலோ கோண்டி,
பார்போசா, பயஸ் notes are also notable. Sivakasi copper inscriptions tells that Madurai is‘Tamil Kudal nagar’.
Agministration
Central government
Central government was functioning in central power system. Chief of the central government was Sultan and he had law and order, Judicial, defence departments under him.
Divisions in government
Iqta was an important division in administration. Iqta were divided into Shiq (District) The chief administrator of Shiqs were Shiqdars. Next division from shiqs were Paraganaa (Taluk), and Gram(Village). The duty of the defence department officers to maintain law and order in their administrative parts of the country.
Ministers
To help and did duties Sultans appointed ministers.
Naib - Next to Sultan but had equivalent power as that of the Sultan.
Wazir – Prime minister of the state and headed Finance department.
Ariz-i-Mumalik – Head of the department of Diwan -I- Ariz and controller general of Military.
Diwan –I- Risalat – Minister of foreign affairs
Sadr –Us -Sudur – Minister of religious affairs
Diwan-I-Insha- Looked after local correspondence.
Barid-i-Mumalika – Head of the intelligence and postal department
And others were also helped Sultans.
Society
The Turks came with Gori Muhammad settled in India. After that Turks, Kurthitars, Khiljis, Sorasanars came with Kutbudin Ibeg stayed in India. During the Mangolian invasion also people settled in India. These converted Muslims were called New Muslims and Parsis. Turks, Arabs, Abichinese and Egyptians were in ruler class. In 13th century CE there were 3 types of lords in the country. They were Khans, Maliks and Amirs.
Status of women
Royal family women and higher caste women got education and were influential with riyal concessions. Muslim women followed Bartha (veil) system. Lower caste people were obedient to their husbands and helped them in agricultural works. Many women were good at cottage industries.
Economy
Lands were divided into 4 parts in Sultan reign.
Iqta – These lands were given to officers instead of salaries.
Kalisa – Under central governments controller.
Zamindars lands by heir system- It is controlled by Sultans.
Inam – Lands granted to religious trusts.
Alauddin Khilji’s store reforms
Alauddin Khilji introduced reforms in shops and stores. Due to that things were sold at minimum prices. If any shop owners did malpractices in weighing or prices he was punished. Non adulterated goods were sold at same prices in all the shops. He administered Sahana-e-Mandi.
Alauddin Khilji made reforms in land management, land survey and land tax systems. Muhammad bin Thuglak highly increased land taxes. Feroz Thuglak increased irrigation facilities and took measures to increase cultivation.
Occupation
Even though agriculture was main occupation other occupations were also growing up. Making ornaments with precious stones, weaving, dyeing, calico printing like textile related works, copper, brass, iron like metal related works, leather works, ship building like occupation were also grown up in their times.
Internal and external trade
Internal trade was dine through local markets. Rice, butter and suger like provisions were sent to Chozha zone. Agra was an important trade center.
Foreign trade was done through north-west mountain passes. Lahore and Multan were trade centers. Many goods from Agra were sent to foreign countries through sea trades. Saffron and shawls from Kashmir and Blue dye from Agra were exported. With his trade policies and agriculture policies, Alauddin Khilji modernized agriculture and business and created market economy.
Religion
During the rule of Delhi Sultans, Hinduism had impacts of Islam. According to religious act of Islam, Hindus were belong to other religions, so they had to pay Jesia (religious tax) and they were isolated. Feroz Thuglak and Sikkandar Lodhi encouraged conversions.
Literature
With the help of government poems, prose and literature were grown up and especially historical literature were encouraged. They supported writings of philosophical, dramatic, medical and astrological books. Regional books were also written in Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Punjabi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam languages.
Amir Khusro
Abul Hasan Yaminith Khusro was his real name and he was an excellent poet and singer. He was a Persian poet. Tarikh e alai was a wonderful book written by him about Allaudin Khilji. This book explains Allaudin Khilji’s reforms, news about him, administrative excellence and people’s status during his period. His Persian poems gave way for Gazals a new style of music.
Ibn Battuta
Abu Addulla Muhammad Ibn Battuta visited India diring the
period of Muhammad bin Thuglak. His travelogue is called as
Rihila. It mentions about the political, social and religious
status in Muhammad bin Thuglak times. He mentioned that
daily some people were brought to the King’s court with
handcuffed and chained in legs. Nd also mentioned about the
habits and new customs in India. He explained about the Sati
system prevailed in Hinduism. He also mentioned about the
mail runners who delivered letters from one place to another
by traveling on foot.
Arts and architecture
As per Ferguson the combination of Indian and Islamic
architecture was the style of Delhi Sultan’s architecture. The
intrusion of Islamic architecture in Indian architecture was
due to :-
Turks used Indian craftsmen and carpenters.
They destroyed Hindu and Jain temples and built structures
upon them.
They converted some Hindu temples into Mosques after
destroying them. So the Indian artistic style can be seen in
their architecture.
Specialties of Sultan period architecture
Pillars, flower designs and elevated floors were there.
The ridges were tall and made with equal measurements.
Front walls were built at low level and suits the walls buildings
in the back.
Gigantic arches were built during their period.
Qutub Minar
In the Mosques the person who is calling people to pray is
called as muezzin. They called people from the high towers
near the Mosques. These towers are called as Minars. To add
artistic beautyto these towers they built 2 towers in front of
these buildings. The construction of Delhi’s Qutub Minar was
started during Qutubuddin Aibak period and finished in
Iltumish period. Its height is 232 feet and built with red sand-
stones. Its is inscribed with Kuran’s divine phrases. Unesco
declared this site as world heritage symbol in the year 1993 CE.
Alai Darwazaa
Built in Alauddin Kjilji period. It was built in the Seljuk, a
Turkish style of architecture. Built from a very high lever
structure with red sandstone and marbles, is looking colourful
in close view.
Feroz Thuglak who ruled after Muhammad bin Thuglak was
building lover. He constructed 1220 flower gardens around
Delhi. He was called as Park lover and Father of irrigation.
He developed a city named Ferozabad and inside this city,
Feroz Shah Kotla ground is there.
Delhi Sultan’s contribution to Indian culture
Amir Khuzru found out Sitar, Kayal like instum,ents and used
in Qavvali. Combination of Indo-Arabian music styles resulted
in a new style of music, named Hindustani.
During their period new ragas like sanam, kora and new style
of light music called qawali were originated.
During the reign of Feroz Thuglak, Ragdarpan a Indian
musical book was translated in to Persian language.
The growth of Dravidian art style reduced and Indo-Arabian
art style was growing up during their period.
Allaudin Khilji’s contributions were, Muster-roll, Dagh system
for horses(branding of government horses by way of marking
them with hot rods), Shop/store reforms, and food
department officers.
To improve the agriculture, Muhammad bin Thuglak created
Diwan-i-Kohi department.
Feroz Shah kotla ground, Agra and beautiful gardens were
their contributions.
Employment office was created during the period of Feroz
Thuglak.
Durng the Feroz Thuglak reign, Diwani Kairat named welfare
department was created for orphans and widows.
The women rulers like Razia Sultan brought changes in
administration of Indo-Arabian tradition.
Their coins were pioneer to coins released/published by later
governments.
Culture in Vijaya Nagara period
Hariharar an Bukkar named 2 brothers with the help of Madhava Vidhyaranyar established Vijaya Nagara empire in the year 1336 CE on the banks of ThungaBadra river. For 4 centuries this empire did great achievements in southern history. This empire was admired and nurtured by Sangama, Chaluva, Thuluva and Aravidu sects of people. Historians mentioned that this empire was established to protect Hinduism, temples and cultures of our country.
Evidences
Literary evidences of Vijaya Nagara empire can be seen in Tamil, Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit languages. கிருஷ்ணதேவராயரின் ஆமுக்தமால்யத ம்,
கங்காதேவி எழுதிய மதுராவிஜயம், அல்லசானி
பெத்தன்னாவின் மனுசரிதம் are main evidences.
Archaeological evidences can be seen at ஹம்பியில் உள்ள விருபாக்ஷர் கோயில்,
பெனுகொண்டா, சந்திரகிரி, வேலூர், செஞ்சி
ஆகிய இடங்களில் காணப்படும் கோட்டைகளும்,
திருவண்ணாமலை, சிதம்பரம், மதுரை,
திருப்பதி போன்ற இடங்களில் காணப்படும்
கோபுரங்களும்.
Many foreign travelers visited Vijaya Nagara empire. Ibn Baduta from Morocco, Nicole Kondi from Venice, Abdur Razaq from Persia were written about culture and life styles of people in Vijaya Nagara period in their travelogue.
Administration
Administrative Department under the Vijayanagara Empire was well structured. King had authority in the right of succession, administration, justice and law. The habit of capturing the throne from the king was also happened sometimes. Empire was divided into zones, Zones into Nadu and Nadu into Sthalams and Sthalams divided into Gramam(villages). Mandaleshwar ruled each Mandlam(Zone).
Social life
According to manucharithra by Alsani Bethanna there were 4 sects in the society namely, Brahmins, Kshatritas, Vaisyas and Shudras. People wore silk and cotton clothes. Dancing, Singing, wresting, gambling and cock fights were their entertainment.
Religion
Sangama sects were followed saivism and Viruppakshar was their family deity. Others followed Vainavism. Kings had religious tolerance towards other religions. Marpoza a Portuguese traveler mentioned that People had religious freedom.
Staus of women
Women had great faith in ancestry. Royal women excelled in education. Gangadevi wife of Kumara Kambanna, and Hannamma and Thirumalamma were great poets in their times. Women were there in the temples to do service. Nunus, a Portuguese traveler said in details that, Devadasi system was prevailed, polygamy system was there in the royal family, Sati system was considered as a pride inVijya Nagara empire.
Economic status
Agriculture was the main occupation. To increase irrigation,
lakes, drainages and dams were built on Thungabadhra river.
Many business were going on. Land revenue department was
called as Athavane. Diamond mines were in Karnool and
Ananthapur districts. Vijayanagaram was a famous trading
centre. Golden coins were called as Varagan. These coins had
Kannada nd Devanagari inscriptions on them. Vaishnava
religious symbols were also inscribed on them.
Many harbors were there in Malabar beaches. Kannanur was
main one among them. Trade links were there from this
harbor to Arabia, Portugal, Persia and South Arfica. Cotton,
silks, spices and fragrances, rice, sugar and saltpetre were
mainly exported. Horses, pearls, corals, mercury, velvet
clothes and Chinese silk were imported. Ship building
industry was flourished.
Justice department
Punishment were given according to Dharma Shastra. In
villages, village court headed by important men from the
villages, temple courts headed by temple commissioners
(sthanikar) and business courts were there in Vijayanagara
empire. Verdicts of civil cases were given on the basis of
witnesses, documents and confessions. For state treason
deadly punishments like poisoning and blinding of eyes were
in practice. Those who had stolen temple properties were
punished with cutting of body parts.
Nayankara system
This system was originated during Vijayanagara period and it
broke the basics of village autonomy prevailed in the southern
parts of India. During Chozha period there were two types of
lands ownership, Kanabogam and Ekabogam. All the
Kanabogam lands were converted into padaipatru lands and
were given to Nayakars. Nayakars received those lands as
grants for padaipatru (to help the forces) and were interested
in collecting taxes and accumulating soldiers. They helped the
Kings with required forces.
Ayakarar system
In the end of 15th century CE this system of Ayakarar or
village officer was introduced in south India. It was formed by
Vijayanagara kings. Village political systems like sabhas, oor,
nadu were changed and according to ayakarar system with
councils having village officer and village labourers. In their
period Karnam did works of lake board, garden board,
panchavara board. He had the list named Adangal (table)
book consisted of wet lands, dry lands, groves, grazing lands,
graveyard and land taxes and a notebook called Chitta.
To do service of village people carpenters, priests, gold smiths,
potters were appointed. For their works, Iraiili(tax-free) lands
were given. For generation they served the people and enjoyed
the lands. People also gave some parts of their harvested
products to these people. This system was the reason of
disappearance of gram sabhas.
Schools
Basic education was given in pial/veranda schools. As there
were no paper and books in those times, the habit of writing
over sands and memorising was in tradition. Ibn battuta
mentioned that Honawar had schools for boys and girls.
During Krishna Deva Rayar times, lands were donated to
those who taught Vedas, Prabanthams and vedantha Shastra
in vishnu temples. Vijayanagara Kings supported astronomy,
astrology and medicines like subjects. Mallikarjina Rayar
donated Devarayapuram(Vrinjipuram) village to
Adhitharayan brahmin who was expert in Vedas, Shastras,
mythology and 6 types of Darisanam(vision).
Literature
In the period of Vijayanagara empire, literature were
developed in Dravidian and Sanskrit languages. Vijayanagara
kings supported talented scholars without religious
discrimination. Hariharadevar II who had a strong
attachment with Hinduism supported the Irugappa Thanda
Nathar, a Jain, who wrote Nanartha Rathinamalai. Venkatta
Deva II supported Advaida supporter Appayya Deekshidar.
குமார கம்பணருடைய அரசியார் கங்காதேவி
மதுராவிஜயம் என்ற நூலையும், இராம
பத்திராம்பாள், இரகுநாத ஆப்யூதயமும்,
திருமலாம்பாள் வரதாம்பிகா பரிணயம் என்ற
நூலையும் இயற்றியுள்ளனர். These queens had
literary knowledge. In the reign of the Vijayanagara Empire
Telugu language has been revived. In the court of King
Krishnadeva raya, Ashtadikgajangal 8 scholars were there. He
himself wrote Usha Parinayam , Jambhavathi kalyanam books.
அல்லசானி பெத்தண்ணா
(ஆந்திரக் கவி பிதாமகன்) - மனுசரிதம்
நந்தி திம்மண்ணா - பாரி ஜாதப கரணமு
துர்ஜாதி - காளத்தி மகாத்மியம்
பிங்காலி சூரன்னா - பிரபாவதிபிரத்யும்
தெனாலிராம கிருஷ்ணர் - விகட கவி
மதகிரி மல்லார்ணா - இராஜசேகர
சரித்திரமு
ஹயலாராஜீபத்ரடூ - ராமபுத்யாமு
இராமராஜபூஷணர் - வசுசரித்திரம்
போன்றோர் புகழ்பெற்றவர்களாகத்
திகழ்ந்தார்கள்.
Architecture
During vijayanagara reign, temples were built with aesthetic
sense. During Cozha period, only Gopuram(Tower) above the
sanctum was excellent. That was changed in Vijayanagara
period and according to the temple festivals and worships
halls like marriage halls, 1000 pillar halls, small temples for
other gods, nd separate temple for goddess were built. In the
1000 pillar halls, horses standing with back legs and with
ready-to-run posture can be seen. Horse halls and spring halls
can be seen. In the top of the pillars lotus buds design is also
there. The Nagabandam (2snakes) structure was followed
during the Vijayanagara reigns. Kudu a style of painting
climbers and plants was also their style.
Paintings
The excellence of painting art in Vijayanagara can be seen at
காஞ்சிபுரம்,திருவண்ணாமலை, திருவாரூர்,
திருவரங்கம், கும்பகோணம், உத்திரமேரூர்,
திருவெற்றியூர், சிதம்பரம், மதுரை,
அழகர்கோயில்,கோவில்பட்டி,
ஸ்ரீவில்லிப்புத்தூர், ஸ்ரீவைகுண்டம்.
Virubakshar temple
This temple was built in Hoysala period and enhanced in
Krishna deva rayar period. In the west side of the temple
sanctum, goddess temple and other gods temple were there.
From the small entrance on the banks of Thungabadra river
one can enter the temple. East temple tower was built in
convex type.
Hampi
It was the capital city of Vijaya nagara empire. And also an
international trade centre. The ruins of Vijayanagara empire
can be seen in this city. Vittala Swamy temple built in 16th
century CE, Hasara Ramaswamy temple are famous. It was
ruined during Thalaikkottai war in 1565 CE and UNESCO
approved this place as a heritage symbol.
Hasara Rama swamy temple
In Persian language Hasara means 1000. In this temple
Ramayana related scenes are more. Ramayana and Bhagwada
scenes are made as sculptures here. Rishi Sringeri doing Putra
Kameshti Yagna, Thataka killed by Rama, Rama, Sita and
Lakshman crossing Ganga Jataku fighting with Ravana while
he abducting Sita can be seen here.
The Mahanavami festival celebration of Vijaya Nagara empire
and Krishna leela can also be seen here.
Festivals
Important festivals celebrated were மகாநவமி,
தீபாவளி,
மகரசங்கராந்தி, யுகாதி, கார்த்திகைத்
திருவிழா,
கல்யாண உற்சவம், சிவராத்திரி,
திருவாதிரைத்
திருவிழா, ராமநவமி, வைகாசிவிசாகம்,
கிருஷ்ணஜெயந்தி, ஏகாதசி, மார்கழிநீராடல்,
தசமி மகாஉற்சவம்.
Vittala swamy temple
The worship of Lord Krishna in the name of Vittala, Vittoba,
PanduRanga in Maharashtra region was called Vittala worship
(விட்டலர் வழிபாடு). In the Mahamandapam of this
temple there were 56 pillars at the height of 12 feet.
Nagabandam and lotus buds are carved in the top of the
pillars. Persy Brown mentioned that the hall here is like an
ornament to Dravida style of architecture.
Vijaya Nagara kings restructured temples in Tamil Nadu with
1000 pillar halls, 100 pillar halls, tall towers, and temple
pillars. Kanchipuram Ekambaranathar temple, Kalahasthi and
Thiruvannamali Arunachaleshwarar temple towers,
Chidambaram north gate temple towers were built by Krishna
Deva Rayar. The temple towers built during Krishna Deva
Rayar period were called as Raja Gopurams. They built 9 to11
storey towers and secular buildings also.
Contribution of Vijayanagara Kingdom to Indian culture
They introduced Feudalism of Europe in the name of
Nayankara system in Southern India.
They gave importance to Ramanavami and New year
celebrations.
They were the main reason for spreading of Telugu language
and growth of Telugu literature in Tamil nadu.
They modernised and laid roads to Tirupati Tirumala temple.
They protected ancient Indian cultural elements like temples
and arts from North Indian and foreign invaders.
Rajagopurams (High towers) were built in their period.
Courtyards(praharangal) of temples were increased in their
period.
Marriage halls, 1000 pillar halls, Yali Halls were built in
temples.
Culture in Bahmani kingdom
Bahmini kingdom was established by Ala-ud-Din Hasan Bahmani Shah(Hasan Gangu Bahmani). He lieved himself from the Delhi Sultan Muhammad bin Thuglak and established independent state. Gulbarga was its capital.
Evidences
To know about Bahmini kingdom, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil stone inscriptions, sanskrit copper inscriptions, literary evidences, temple, palaces and forts like archaeological evidences are there to help. More over Ibn Batuta, Nuniz, Abdur Razzak, and Nikitin like foreign travelers travelogue are also helping.
Administration
Central government
It followed the model of Islamic style of governing. King had all the authorities. Sulthan ran the government with the help of ministers. Bahmini sultan accepted superior authority of the Khalifa.
Miniters
They governed the state with the help of 8 ministers :-
Vakil-us-saltanat – Vice president – Subordinate Minister of the state
Amir-i-Jumla – Finance ministers
Vazir – I – gul – Supervising ministers works
Vazir - I – Ashraf – Foreign affairs ministers
Nazir – Finance department ministers
Peshwa – Government force in-charge
Kothwal – Head of Police department
Sadar – I -jahan – Supreme judge
This system was model to later Marathi kingdoms.
State administration
Ala-ud-Din Hasan Bahmani Shah divided Bamani empire in to 4 major parts, Azanabad, Daulatabad, Birar and Bidar. Governor took care of the administrations. The empire was divided into Tarafs and governed in Muhammad Shah period. Tarafs were divided in to Sarkars, Sarkars were divided into Parganas, and Parganas were divided into villages. The basic unit of the government is village.
Social status
Bahmani kingdom was a combination of Hindu-Islam religions. In the society, farmers, weavers, metal smiths and hand craft workers were highly respected.
Revenue department
Muhammad Gavan, a minister in Bahmani kingdom measured lands, calculated the borders of villages and cities and entered in the government Gazette. In each state lands for the king were assigned and it was called as Khasa-i-Sultani. Government got income from laands.
Education
Bahmani sultans were interested in education. They started many schools. Mujahid Shah established a school for destitute people. Educational institution were established in Gulbarga and Bidar. Sultan Feroz shah was expert in theology, science, geometry and mathematics. He called educators from Arab and Persia to educated the people.
Muhammad Gavan who was born in Persia had excellency in Persian and Mathematics. He was a great poet and writer. He built Madrasa named school in Bidar with a huge library. It is registered that, the library contained 3000 hand written books.
Architecture
Many number of Buildings were construvted in Bahmani period. Jama Masjid in Gulbarga was constructed by both Persian and Arabic architects. Golkumbaz and Golkonda buildings of their period are very famous.
Jama Masjid of Gulbarga
This was started during the period of Muhammad Shah I and finished in 1367 CE. The structure was closed with canopy consists of 63 half spherical domes. Its central ground, beauty of north, south and east sides’ of canopy and circular broad foot path are evidence of Bahmani architecture.
Golkonda Fort
It was built by Kakatiya king named RajaKrishnadev. The surrounding place of this fort was called as Muhammad Nagar. It was a capital of Kutup Shaw. Based on the sound structure of the fort, it is an example of excellent architecture. Highest parts of this Fort is called as Balahisar. Artilleries, palaces, rooms and Masjids wincluding 4 small forts were there inside this fort. Its door is called as Bade Darwaza. And in the 17th century Golkonda was the best diamond market.
Gol Gumbaz Masjid
It is in Bijapur, Karnataka and a surial ground building. It was
built in Dravidian and Sultanese style of architecture. It is a
cuboid shaped building. Each side has equal length, width and
height of 475 meters. It is the largest burial ground in the
world having single room spaces. The speciality of this
building’s sound system is even if we talk from the center of
this building, it can be heard anywhere in the building.
Paintings
The basic of Bijapur Ibrahim Rouza and Parabak in
Ahmednagar were Deccan Sultanese style. Bahmani Sultans
were broad minded and their period brought changes in
Indian arts and culture.
Contribution of Bahmani kingdoms
Many schools and libraries built. In south India they were the
first ones to provide education to islamic people through
Madrasas.
Muhammad Gavan’s administrative reforms were pioneer to
later Islamic sultans.
குல்பர்க்காவில் உள்ள ஜிம்மா
மசூதி, கோல்கொண்டா கோட்டை
கோல்கும்பாஸ் கட்டடம் were architectural
contributions.
By topography it was the first Islamic government established
in India.
Reforms of Muhammad Shaw I was pioneer to later Sultans
and Marathi kings.
Culture of Mughals
Mughal empire was established in India by Babur, in the year 1526 CE. ஹுமாயூன், அக்பர்,
ஜஹாங்கீர், ஷாஜஹான், ஔரங்கசீப் ஆகியோர்
முகலாயர்களின் முக்கிய மன்னர்கள ாவர். There were amazing improvements due to them in administration, social, economical, religious, fine arts etc.
Evidences
பாபர் எழுதிய சுயசரிதையான பாபர்
நாமா, அவரது மகள் குல்பதான் பேகம் எழுதிய ஹுமாயூன் நாமா, அபுல்பாசல்
எழுதிய அயினி அக்பரி, அக்பர் நாமா ஆகிய
நூல்களும் டாவர்னியர், பெர்னியர், மனூச்சி
ஆகிய வெளிநாட்டவர்களின் குறிப்புகளும்,
பதேபூர்சிக்ரி, தாஜ்மஹால், ஜும்மா மசூதி,
டெல்லி செங்கோட்டை போன்ற கட்டடங்களும்
முகலாயர்களைப் பற்றி அறிவதற்கான
சான்றுகளாகத் திகழ்கின்றன.
Governance/ administration
The king who ruled the wide spread country was called as Badshaw.
Vakil – Prime minister
Diwani ala – finance ministers
Mir Bakshi – Commander in Chief
Sadar – us – sudur - Minister for religion
Khan – I = Saamaan – Higher palace officer
Head Khazi – Supreme Judge
Other ministers like ,
Dharoga -I -Dak – Chauki – Head of Intelligence bureau
Mir -I - Athish - Chief of Artillery
Mir – I – Bahari – Chief of small navy
Mirbar – Chief of forestry
Mir Dosak – Parliament house Incharge
Land revenue
Akbar defined the land revenue system of Mughal empire. He activated the Jabti system by the advice of Raja Thodarmal. விளைச்சலின்
அடிப்படையில் நிலங்கள் பொலாஜ், பரௌதி,
சச்சார், பான்சார் ஆகிய நான்கு பிரிவாகப்
பிரிக்கப்பட்டு, வரி வசூல் செய்யப்பட்டது.
Defence administrations
Mughal kings had Cavalry, Infantry, Artillery, Navy, and elephantry. Forces were systemised by the Mansabthari system. Cavalry soldiers were called as Silveshta.
Social status
Society with Hindus and Muslims were sustained in the Mughal period. In Hindus Rajaputras, Brahmins and business people were in high position. Soldiers, handicrafts workers, Priests metal smiths were in the society. As the rule was of Islamic rule, Arab, Turkey, Mangolia, Abhisinia, Afganistan muslims got importance. Sheksadas named Indian Muslims got respect in the society.
Status of women
Even though male domination was in the society, women from Rajaputra and Muslim royal families got basic education and religious matters. The women in those period were affected due to child marriage and widow remarriage was not approved.
Education
For Hindus got education in elementary education institutions and schools and royal children got education in the palace. Maktab, Madrasa were giving education to Muslim children. Benaras, Nadya, Ayidhya, mathura, Allahabad, Ujjain had universities for Hindus. Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikhri. Lahore had higher educational institutions for Muslims. Persian was official language and medium of education in Muslim institutions.
Economic status
Agriculture was main occupation. கோதுமை, நெல்,
பருப்பு வகைகள், பார்லி, பருத்தி, கரும்பு,
அவுரி, எண்ணெய் வித்துக்கள் were cultivated. In
the 17th century they introduced crops like Maize, potato,
tobacco, and chilly. Those who did foreign trade were called as
Seth and Bora, internal traders were called as Banic, Whole
sale traders were called Banjaras. From Bengal rice, sugar,
Muslin cloth and silk were exported to central Asian
countries.
Chozha zone was regarded as Fabric export zone. Cashmere
shawls, woolen clothes, luxury items were exported from
Gujarat. Graphite, copper, war horses, ivory were imported.
Abul Fazal tells that during the period of Akbar thousands of
Karkhana (factories) were established. சீனா, ஜப்பான்,
பாரசீக, எகிப்திய, அரேபிய, ஐரோப்பிய traders
bought Indian cotton clothes.
பேரரசு சுபாக்கள் என்ற
மாநிலங்களாகவும், சுபாக்கள் சர்க்கார்கள்
என்ற மாவட்டங்களாகவும், சர்க்கார்கள்
பர்கானாக்கள் என்ற வட்டங்களாகவும்
பிரிக்கப்பட்டன. சுபாக்கள்
என்றமாநிலங்களைச்
சுபேதார் என்பவர் ஆட்சி செய்தார். அவருக்கு
உதவ திவான் என்றமாநில நிதியமைச்ச ர்,
மாநில
சதர் என்ற சமயத்துறை அமைச்ச ர், மாநில
பக்ஷி
என்ற வழக்கு அலுவலர், கொத்வால் என்ற
நகரச் சிறப்பு நிர்வாக அலுவலர் போன்றோர்
கொண்ட மாநில அமைச்ச ரவை
செயல்பட்டது.
சர்க்கார்களை பாஜ்தார் என்பவரும்,
பர்கானாக்களை ஷிக்தார் என்பவரும் ஆட்சி
செய்தனர். பிடிக்க்ஷி, பொட்தார், அமால்
குஜார்
போன்ற அலுவலர்கள் மாநில, மாவட்ட அரசு
நிர்வாகத்திற்கு உதவினர்.
Religious status
Mughal were doing religious based governance, but Akbar was
Secular. Due to his friendship with Rajputras, he abolished tax
on pilgrims in 1563 and Jisia tax for non-Islamic people in
1564. He clenrated Hindu’s festival Diwali. He opposed Sati
system and Jauhar system. He established Ibadatkhana a
religious prayer hall in 1575 and 1575 he released his
தவறுபடா ஆணையை வெளியிட்டார்.
He participated in religious debate with Hindus, Christians,
Jains and Islam.
இவ்வுரையாடலில் புருஷோத்தம், தேவி
(இந்துமதம்), மெகர்ஜிராணா (ஜொராஸ்டிரிய
மதம்) அக்வாவிபா, மான்சரேட்
(கிறித்துவமதம்)
ஹிர விஜய சூரி (சமண மதம்) ஆகியோர்
பங்கு
பெற்றனர். உரையாடலின் விளைவாக அக்பர்
தீன்
இலாகி (தெய்வீக சமயம்) என்ற புதிய
சமயத்தைத்
தோற்றுவித்தார். He treated all religions equally. As he
had good relations with Sikhs he donated lands to build
golden temple. As Jahangir, Shah Ja Haan and Aurangzeb
were not acted with liberal inds on religious matters they did
not get non-Islamic people’s support.
Architecture
In Akbar and Shahjahaan period architecture was developed.
Brick buildings were built in Akbar period. Persian style were
followed in architecture. Humayun’s Tomb, Buland Darwaza,
beautiful buildings in Fatehpur Sikhri were constructed in
Akbar period. Jahangir built Akbar’s tomb in Sikkandara.
During Shah Ja Haan’s period Mughal architecture was at its
peak and was golden period of Mughal architecture. Taj Mahal
was the best building of his time. It was built in the memory of
his wife Mumtaj Mahal, whose real name was Arjumand Banu
Begum, in Agra on the banks of Yamuna river. Experts from
India, Persia, Arabia and Turkey were involved in building
that. Ustad Ahamadlahavari made the consolidated plan of
construction. ShahdullahKhan was overseeing the works. It
was built with white marble stones from Mekarrana. The
flower works of this building is called as Piyatratiyura.
டெல்லியில் செங் கோட்டை,
ஜும்மாசூதி போன்றவையும் ஷாஜஹான்
காலத்தில் கட்டப்பட்டன. Modi Masjid,
முத்துமசூதி, திவானிகாஸ், திவானி ஆம் were
buildings of his period.
Literature
Tharik I rashidi was written by Mirza Hyder and it tells about
the Babarand Humayun. நிஜாம் உத்தீன் பக்ஷி
என்பவர்
எழுதிய தபாகத் –இ- அக்பரி என்ற நூல்
அக்பரின் ஆட்சிமுறையைக் குறிப்பிடுகிறது.
முகலாய மன்னரான ஜஹாங்கீர் துசுக்- இ-
ஜஹாங்கீரி என்ற சுயசரிதை நூலை
எழுதினார்.
அப்துல்ஹமீதுலாகூரி எழுதிய ‘பாதுஷா
நாமா’ என்ற நூலும், இனாயத்கான் எழுதிய
‘ஷாஜஹான் நாமா‘ என்ற நூலும்
ஷாஜஹானின்
ஆட்சிக் காலத்தைப் பற்றிக்
குறிப்பிடுகின்றன.
மிர்சா முகம்மதுகான் எழுதிய ஆலம்கீர் நாமா
என்ற நூல் ஓளரங்கசீப்பின் ஆட்சிக்
காலத்தைப்
பற்றிக் குறிப்பிடுகிறது.
Music
Akbar was expert in playing Nakkara instrument. MiaTansen
was in his court. Musicians were supported during Jahangir
and Shah Jahan period.
Paintings
Mr Syed Ali and Abdul Samad were 2 painters whom
Humayun brought from Persia.Akbar started the style of
giving explanations to religious stories in the form of
paintings. He supported painters like பஸ்வான்,
மிஸ்கினா, தஸ்வந்த்.
Inhis period Ramayana Mahabharatha stories were painted.
Hamsa Nama a collection of paintings was created. Jahangir
period saw peak in Painting art. அபுல்ஹசன்,
பிஷன்தாஸ், மது,
ஆனந்த், கோவர்தன், உஸ்தாத் மன்சூர் were
famous painting artists. King, Queen,court room, hunting,
animals were in their paintings. Album making was
introduced
in Mughal period.
Contribution of Mughal to Indian culture
Arabic, Persian and Turkey languages were nurtured.
Land revenue system and Japti system was pioneer to British
rule in India.
Tansen from Gwalior a musician was in Akbar’s court. He laid
seeds for evolvation of Indian music later.
Noorjahan, wife of Jahangir introduced fragrance made from
rose petals. This esssence was an important product of their
trade.
Mughals introduced Maida based eatables and Biryani.
காஷ்மீரிலுள்ள நிஷத்பாக், லாகூரிலுள்ள
ஷாலிமார் தோட்டம், பஞ்சாப்பிலுள்ள
பங்க்சோர் தோட்டப்பூங்கா were their contribution.
Jahangir’s Justice chain system gave way for later judiciary
system.
